Rajputana College of Pharmacy, Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
Rheumatoid arthritis; Anti-arthritic activity; Protein denaturation; Membrane stabilization; Diclofenac sodium ,

Drug-induced toxicity remains a major challenge in pharmacotherapy and drug development, contributing significantly to treatment failure, adverse drug reactions, and withdrawal of marketed drugs. The molecular basis of drug-induced toxicity involves complex interactions between drugs and cellular components, leading to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, immune activation, and disruption of cellular homeostasis. Reactive metabolites generated during drug metabolism play a pivotal role in initiating toxicity through covalent binding to macromolecules and triggering inflammatory pathways. Genetic and epigenetic factors further influence individual susceptibility to toxic effects. Recent advances in toxicogenomics, in vitro and in silico models, and biomarker discovery have enhanced early detection and prediction of toxicity. Additionally, therapeutic interventions such as antioxidant therapy, targeted drug delivery systems, and precision medicine approaches are being explored to mitigate adverse effects. This review provides a comprehensive overview of molecular mechanisms and emerging strategies for safer pharmacotherapy

16 , 1 , 2026